WHAT IS SUPER ELEVATION ?

SUPER ELEVATION:
 

When a vehicle travels in a circular path or curved path, it is subjected to an outward force which makes a vehicle to overturn and skid due to Centrifugal Force. To overcome this force and for safe travel of  a vehicle, the outer edge of the road is raised above the inner edge.This is known as Super elevation or Banking of road.

Super Elevation / Banking of road reduces the effect of centrifugal force on the running wheels. If the super elevation is not provided, the entire centripetal force is produced by the friction between the vehicle's tires and the roadway, thus the results in reducing the speed of the vehicle.

ADVANTAGES: 

• Super elevation is provided to achieve the higher speed of the vehicles.It increases the stability of the fast moving vehicles when they pass through a horizontal curve, and it also decreases the stresses on the foundation.
• In the absence of super elevation on the road along curves, potholes are likely to occur at the outer edge of the road.
• The Indian road congress (IRC) has prescribed the max value of super elevation as 1 in 15.

Super Elevation Formula:

                         Super Elevation = e + f = V² / 127R

• e = Rate of Super elevation in %
• f = Lateral friction factor = 0.15
• V = Velocity of vehicle in m/s
• R = Radius of circular curve in meters.  

 

HONEYCOMBS IN CONCRETE-CAUSES AND REMEDIES

Fig.1

Honeycombs are hollow spaces and cavities or voids which will happen when the concrete cannot reach the Full mass. The fig.1 shows us the honeycomb which is present outside the column. 

Below are some reasons for honeycombs in concrete,

• Improper vibration to concrete (Fig.1)
• Use of hardened concrete (i.e.,) the concrete which is going to attain its setting time.
• Less cover to the reinforcement (Fig.2)
• In places like junction of beam-column-beam because, these area contains more number of reinforcement and hence it has less cover to the rods.

Honeycombs are formed generally due to the improper vibration to concrete but, in some cases, these honeycombs wont be visible for that we have to use Ultrasonic testing,etc. 

Fig.2

Invisible cavities can be seen in Concrete Slab. These invisible cavities can be found on curing because, it causes leakage in slab. If it is not found earlier it may lead to corrosion of main reinforcement and hence causes the slab to failure.

The normal honeycombs on outer region should be strictly broken with a hammer until we get a Hard Surface and the portion should be concreted with grouting chemical to old surface but, in most of the cases normal cement slurry is used with mortar.

If proper cover to the reinforcement is provided most of this problem will be prevented. The Site Engineer should take more care towards clear cover to the reinforcement and in Junction, the beam rods should be placed in column with more clear cover to the reinforcement.

For Column=25 m

  For Beam   =25 mm

 For Slab     =12 mm

If clear cover at junction portion is unavailable, it should be bent to some extent and should be placed with proper clear cover. On concreting, the outer side of the shuttering at the junction portion can be tapped to minimize the formation of honeycombs and the concrete mix with addition of water can be increased slightly.  

For Invisible cavities, it should be broken and cleaned out and then it should be filled with waterproofing concrete.

STEEL COLUMN FORMWORK Vs PLYWOOD COLUMN FORMWORK

fig.1 Plywood Column Formwork

Many of you may seen in Small buildings, the usage of Steel Column box for casting column is more compared to Plywood. The reason behind this one is the cost difference between them. But, the absolute quality and look is always better when using Plywood box.

  fig.2 Steel Column Formwork   

In most of the small buildings, the contractors always go for steel formwork because to save few bucks but in the same sense that the steel column box will not give the desired results as expected. However, it is then covered in plastering. In some worst cases, this type of work leads to increase in thickness of plastering. Below figures shows us the effect of Steel Column Box

fig.3(a)

In fig.3(a), the top portion of column shows the deviation in actual placement of beam, this is due to the bend in the Steel Column box. To prevent such things, the Site Engineer should take more responsibility and there should be proper selection of formwork material. These types of errors should be taken more care. Each and every Steel Column Formwork should be properly checked for Right Angle at site, if it is not it must be replaced with good ones. 

In Other hand, after Unboxing of column we can also see the undulation in the surface of the column, these undulations shows the real quality difference between both the formworks. These type of errors wont happen in Plywood Column Formwork that's why we should always prefer Plywood Formwork. In High rise and Big Buildings, we wont able to see the use of Steel formwork for column why because, the cost of Plywood wont make much difference there.  

WHY YOU SHOULD GO WITH ORACLE PRIMAVERA P6 ? - 10 ADVANTAGES OF PRIMAVERA P6

PRIMAVERA P6:

The word Primavera is now sound everywhere in the field of Project management. Primavera provides project and product management for the construction , IT , manufacturing , oil and gas industries. It makes the large and complex projects into easy manageable ones by efficiently planning, managing and reviewing of the project. 

Primavera was launched by Primavera Systems Inc in 1983 and it was acquired by Oracle corporation in 2008. 

WHY YOU SHOULD GO WITH PRIMAVERA P6 ?

1.PRIMAVERA P6 REDUCES RISK

When your schedule has inconsistencies, errors, or overrun issues, project expenses will grow. this could mean cutting more vital aspects of the project to compensate for the excess costs.Using Primavera P6 helps identify and mitigate risks in the course of planning, managing, and completing a project.

2.EASY TO USE SOFTWARE

Primavera P6 offers many complex analyses and processes; however, accessing and managing the schedule remains simple. Simply input your information, and wait for the software to determine if any problems exists. For example, worker shifts may be uncovered, have too many employees, or additional raw materials may  be needed. P6 may be used throughout an entire project, even large, multi-tier projects.

3.OPTIMIZED RESOURCES

Primavera P6 allows all involved in a project to carefully monitor resource availability and adjust such resources to meet project demands. Furthermore, the software can help identify areas where resource costs may be reduced by analyzing resource trends and costs.

4.ENHANCED VISIBILITY

Visibility and Compliance with political and environmental regulations are among the top priorities for the project managers and business executives. Since Oracle Primavera P6 allows all data to be entered, tracked, and analyzed in one location, you can ensure your project does not pose any possible violations.

5.FORECASTING OF PROJECT ACTIVITIES

As a project evolves, the project may require additional resources, activities,and tasks to meet stakeholder demands. Within Oracle Primavera P6, project managers can create forecasts, activities, and other project needs.

6.TRACKING FEATURES

The tracking features of Primavera P6 allow users to rapidly generate reports, ensure all projects are completed as requested and maintain baseline adherence.

7.ENHANCED COMMUNICATION

Some project may span large geographical areas, require hundreds of workers, and involve many different parties. Primavera P6 enables executive-level staff to communicate with other workers, project managers, and planners easily. Furthermore, notes can be made to the schedule in the software to ensure all users see the message.

8.IMPROVED COLLABORATION

Since communication is enhanced throughout a project, it's easy to see how improved collaboration. This is especially important when projects span large areas. For example, projects in the energy production industries may require collaboration between many different parties.

9.GIVES EMPLOYEES RESPONSIBILITY IN SCHEDULE CREATION

Primavera P6 makes the scheduling and planning easier by allowing users access to the schedule. Additionally, you may allow workers to create their schedules within the software from their location. Workers may also make schedule requests within the software, turn in timesheets, and perform other scheduling functions.

10.BREAKDOWN COMPLEX PROJECTS

The size of a project can be overwhelming. Oracle P6 allows project managers to break large projects into smaller, achievable projects, tasks, and activities.

Oracle Primavera P6 popularity is rapidly growing for its ability to plan, manage,and control all facets of a project. Once you have obtained Primavera training, you may able to gain access to better career opportunities. Ultimately Primavera P6 is like a door to make a successful future. 

 Download the software here:

HOW TO CALCULATE CONCRETE VOLUME?

In this post, we are going to discuss "How to calculate concrete volume and it's ingredients?"

How to Calculate Concrete Volume?

If it is a volume, then we know there must be 3 dimensions, Length, Height, Width or Breadth.

For Slab, If we need to calculate the concrete volume,

<sup>Volume = Length x Breadth x Width / Thickness = 5 x 3 x 0.125 = 3.75 cu.m

For Beam,  If we need to calculate the concrete volume,</sup>

<sup>Volume = Length x Breadth x Width = 5 x 0.6 x 0.3 = 0.9 cu.m

For Column, If we need to calculate the concrete volume,</sup>

 <sup>Rectangular Column, Volume = Height x Breadth x Width = 5 x 0.6 x 0.3 = 0.9 cu.m

Circular Column , Volume = 𝛑r˄2h = 3.14 x (0.15)˄2 x 5 = 0.35 cu.m

CONCRETE INGREDIENTS CALCULATION:

For cement, sand and coarse aggregate.

This is a volumetric calculation.

Assuming we need 2 cu.m of concrete for M20 mix,(Mix ratio, M20 = 1:1.5:3)

Total part of the concrete = 1 + 1.5 + 3 = 5.5 parts

Therefore, Cement Quantity = (Cement Part / Concrete Parts) x Concrete Volume

= (1 / 5.5) x Concrete Volume = (1 / 5.5) x 2 = 0.3636 cu.m

Density of Cement = 1440 kg / cu.m = 0.3636 x 1440 = 523 kg = 10.5 approx.bags

Sand Quantity = (Sand Part / Concrete Parts) x Concrete Volume = (1 / 5.5) x 2 = 0.5454 cu.m

Coarse Aggregate = (Coarse aggregate part / Concrete parts) x Concrete Volume = (3 / 5.5) x 2 = 1.09 cu.m

WATER CEMENT RATIO:

According to IS 10262 (2009), Assuming Water-Cement Ratio for the concrete as 0.45

Required amount of water = W/C ratio x Cement volume 

Therefore, Water = 0.45 x 0.3636 = 0.16362 cu.m

[Unit Weight of Water = 1000 liters/cu.m] 

Required amount of water = 0.16362 x 1000 = 163.32 liters

Therefore,we need 10.5 bags of cement , 0.5454 cu.m of sand , 1.09 cu.m of coarse aggregates and 163.62 liters of water.</sup>

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLASTERING AND POINTING

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLASTERING AND POINTING:

Plastering and pointing or two common terms in building construction. However, both are not same. The difference between plastering and pointing are as follows:

1. The main objective of plastering is to protect the exposed surface of the masonry. That's why motor is applied to the total surface of the masonry. But in pointing only joints are filled with mortar.

2. Cement, sand, lime mortar is used in plastering. But only cement mortar is used in pointing.

3. Plastering is done both the inside and outside surfaces. Pointing is done only on the outside parts.

4. Large amount of materials is required for plastering work. On the other hand less amount of materials is required in pointing work.

5. After plastering the surface becomes smooth and plain. It gives better appearance to the structure. But after Pointing the surface do not become plain as plastering.

6. After plastering the defects of masonry are not visible, but the defects of masonry can be seen in case of pointing.

7. Plastering can be done in all types of brick surface. But pointing is only suitable for first class bricks.

SITE ENGINEER'S CHECKLIST FOR QUALITY BRICKWORK

BRICKWORK CHECKLIST FOR SITE ENGINEERS:

While on site, a site engineer must ensure that the brickwork is going on as per quality requirements. Some of the general requirements of quality of brickwork are mentioned below. Use this as a checklist while executing brickwork.

 1. The thickness of joint in brick masonry should not exceed 1 cm.

 2. The face joints should be raked to a depth of 15mm by raking      tool when the mortar is still green so as to provide proper key for plastering or pointing.

 3.Brick work should be taken up in layers not exceeding one meter height at a time.

 4.Check that the brick work is in plumb.

 5.Check that the brick courses are in level.

 6.Check the quality of bricks with specific reference to

• Strength
• Efflorescence
• Dimensional accuracy
• Water absorption

 

 7.Check that no brick bats are used as queen closer.

 8.Check strength of mortar by scratching with sharp instrument like screw driver.

 9.Check the quality of sand in mortar.(Test for fitness modulus and silt content).

10.Check mixing of  mortar whether done by hand or by machine, whether mixing is done on a proper platform.

11.Check arrangements for curing.

12.Whether raking of green joints done or not.

13.Whether soaking of bricks done or not.

14.Check general quality of works with reference to lines, levels, 
thickness and trueness of the joints.  

15.Whether brick corners are provided properly by a proper brick closer and not by pitting brick bats.

16.Whether top courses in plinth, in window sill and below RCC slab and parapet are provided with brick on edge.

17.Whether joints of brick work are filled with mortar fully, check especially vertical joints.

18.Check type of scaffolding and whether tied and braced properly.

19.Check reinforcement in brick partition wall, whether provided.

20.Check bonding of cross wall with long walls.

21.Whether holes left in the brick work while execution for supporting scaffolding are filled with concrete and not with dry bricks.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WORKING STRESS METHOD AND LIMIT STATE METHOD

 The cardinal difference between Working Stress Method (WSM) and Limit State Method (LSM) is : WSM is  an elastic design method whereas LSM is a plastic design method.

In elastic design, i.e WSM, the design strength is calculated such that the stress in material is retained to it's yield limit, under which the material follows Hooke's law, and hence the term "elastic" is used. This method yields to uneconomical design of simple beam, or other structural elements where the design governing criteria is stress (static).

However, in case of shift of governing criteria to other factors such as fatigue stress, both the methods will give similar design. Also, WSM substantially reduces the calculation efforts.

Now coming to the plastic design, i.e. LSM, as the name suggests, the stress in material is allowed to go beyond the yield limit and enter into the plastic zone to reach ultimate strength. Hence the "moment rotation" capacity of beam, for example, is utilized making the design more economical. However, due to the utilization of the non-linear zone, this method involves arduous calculation.

All other differences are mostly derived from the above stated fundamental difference along with few general differences. Some of these  differences are stated below:

1. Serviceability check in case of LSM is required because after the elastic region strain is higher, which results in more deformation, hence a check is necessary.
2. LSM is strain based method whereas WSM is stress based method.
3. LSM is non-deterministic method where WSM is deterministic approach.
4. The partial safety factor is used in LSM whereas Safety factor is used in WSM.
5. Characteristic values (derived from probabilistic approach) are used in case of LSM whereas Average or static values are used in WSM.

HOW TO CLACULATE SHUTTERING AREA FOR CONSTRUCTION

CALCULATION OF SHUTTERING AREA:

Shuttering or formwork is a temporary, rigid structure in which the cast in situ concrete is poured for casting the members to required shape. Different formworks are used for different shape members.

In this article,we will discuss how to calculate the shuttering area before construction.

Before calculating the shuttering area first, we need to know how to calculate the peripheral length of any shape.

PERIPHERAL LENGTH/PERIMETER:

We know that perimeter is the distance around a 2D(two dimensional) shape.

For example, square has four sides. Let's be the length of one side,then

∴The peripheral length = S+S+S+S = 4S.

Rectangle has four sides also but the length ans breadth is different, let length is 'l' and breadth is 'b'

∴Peripheral length = l+b+l+b = 2l+2b

Now coming to the calculation of shuttering area.

Shuttering area = Peripheral length x Depth

Let me show you an example,

 Here the shape is rectangle,

∴Peripheral length = 2l + 2b
                               = (2x1) + (2x0.8)
                               = 2 + 1.6 
                               = 3.6

∴Total shuttering area = Peripheral length x Depth
                                     = 3.6 x 4
                                     = 14.4 sq.m 

HOW TO CALCULATE STEEL QUANTITY FOR RCC BEAM, COLUMN AND SLAB

Following are the steps to calculate the quantity of steel for RCC slab:

• Prepare a bar bending schedule in order to classify different shapes of bars (bent up bar, straight anchor bar, curtail bar etc) and diameters.
• List down all the shapes of bars from the drawing.
• Count the number of bars of each of those shapes.
• Then calculate the cutting length of each of those bars.                                                          

Cutting length of bar = (length of member - deduction for cover on both sides) + development length.

• Then calculate the unit weight of each dia bars by the following formula:

W = d² / 162.
where, 
d is the dia in mm 
w is the weight in kg.

• Then calculate the weight of rebar

Weight of rebar = no. of bars x cutting length x unit weight

• Add all the weight to get the total steel quantity.

NOTE: 
   
    1. Minimum % of steel as per Indian standards are:

• Beam (Tension reinforcement): 

As = 0.85 bd/fy of gross section area.

• Slab - 0.12% of total area
• Column - 0.8% of total area.

    2. Maximum % steel as per Indian standard are:

• Beam - 4% of cross-section area
• Slab - 4% of cross-section area
• Column - 6% of cross-section area.

     3. Development length is usually specified in the drawings, but if not then you can calculate it as,
D.L = Depth - 2 times cover.
     
      4. Binding wire = 10 grams per kg of reinforcement.

      5. No. of stirrups = (length of member - 2 x cover)/spacing + 1.

ADVANTAGES OF RCC STAIRS

RCC STAIRS OR REINFORCED CONCRETE STAIRS:

RCC stairs may be the most common stairs widely used than any other type of stairs. These stairs can be easily moulded to any desired shape and are better tear and fire resistant. The steps of RCC stairs are made by using ordinary cement concrete. Besides ordinary cement concrete, some other superior finishing materials are also used such as marble, terrazzo, tiles etc. to give them better appearances.

ADVANTAGES OF RCC STAIRS:

The advantage of R.C.C stairs are as following:

1. R.C.C stairs are better fire resistant than any other stairs.
2. They are adequately strong and more durable.
3. The steps are no-slippery.
4. They offer better and pleasant appearances.
5. The stairs can be designed for greater widths and longer spans.
6. They can be easily cleaned.
7. R.C.C stairs can be precast or cast in situ.
8. The maintenance cost is almost nil.
9. In modern sky scraper construction always framed structures are adopted, for such structures R.C.C stairs are the one and only stairs which can be used.

METHODS OF ESTIMATION OF BUILDING WORK

The estimation of the quantities of various items of a building such as earth work in excavation, concrete in foundation, brick work in foundation and  plinth,brick work in super structure, etc., may be made by the following methods:

• Center line method
• Long and short wall method

1.Center line method:

In this method, the center line length of walls in a building is multiplied by the breadth and depth of the respective item to get the total quantity of the item. In case of partition or verandah walls joining with the main walls, the center line is reduced by half of the breadth of the layer of the main wall at the same level.

Suitability: This method is especially suited for estimating the circular, hexagonal, octagonal, etc. shaped buildings.

2.Long and short wall method:

In this method, the longer walls are generally treated as long walls and the shorter or partition walls. The long walls are measured out-to-out i.e. center to center length minus half projection one side and half projection on the other side.

Suitability: This method is mostly used irrespective of variable sections of walls.

CIVIL ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS & CONVERSION FACTORS

Measurement is one of the important things in civil engineering and without measurements, we can not complete any construction. Here I have listed some basic measurements and conversion factors which are most commonly used in civil engineering. Hope it will help you in your work.

BASIC QUANTITIES AND UNITS:

 BASIC STANDARDS:

1 inch = 25.4 mm = 2.54 cm.
1 meter = 39.37 inches = 1.09 yards.
1 liter = 0.22 galls (imp.)
1 gallon (imp.) = 4.546liters. 
1 gallon (US) = 3.785 liters.
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2046 pounds(lb).
--------------------------------------------------------------
METRIC UNIT OF WEIGHT / MASS :

1 tonne = 1000 kilograms = 10,00,000 grams.
1 quintal = 100 kilograms = 1,00,000 grams.
1 slug = 14.606 kg.
1 slug = 32.2 lb
---------------------------------------------------------------
MEASUREMENTS OF LENGTH:

1 foot = 12 inches.
1 yard = 3 feet.
1 furlong = 220 yards.
1 mile = 8 furlongs.
1 kilometer = 1000 meters.
1 cm = 10 mm.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
METRIC UNITS FOR LIQUID MEASUREMENTS:

1 liter = 100 ml.
1 liter = 1 kg.
1 kiloliter (1000 liters) = 1 cubic meter / 1 cu.m / 1 m³.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
CONVERSION FACTORS:

1 cu.ft = 28.317 liters.
1 cu.ft = 0.028 cu.m
1 cu.ft = 6.24 galls(imp.)
1 cu.ft = 7.48 galls(US)
1 imp.gall = 1.20 galls(US), liquid.
1 imp.gall = 1.03 galls(US), dry.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
MEASUREMENTS OF AREA:

1 acre = 43560 sq.ft.
1 acre = 4046.46 sq.m.
1 acre = 8 kanals.
1 kanal = 20 marlas.
1 marla = 225 sq.ft [*in some regions 272 sq.ft]
1 marla = 15.50 sq.m
-----------------------------------------------------------------
MISCELLANEOUS CONVERSION FACTORS:

1 cu.m = 35.32 cu.ft
1 pound = 4.448 Newton(force)
1 klb = 4.448 kN
1 Psi(lb/sq.in) = 6.689 Pascal (N/sq.m)
1 (lb/sq.ft) = 0.048 (kN/sq.m).
-----------------------------------------------------------------

HOW TO CALCULATE OF UNIT WEIGHT OF STEEL BARS

CALCULATION OF UNIT WEIGHT OF STEEL BARS:

After estimating it is very important  to know the unit weight of steel bars, because we estimate as 100 meter 20mm dia bar or 100 feet 16mm dia bar, etc.
But steel bar suppliers will not understand this notation, they measure the steel bars in weight. So we have to order them in kg or quintal or ton. In this article, we will discuss how to calculate unit weight of steel bars of different diameter.

The formula is W = D²L / 162

where,

W = weight of steel bars.
D = Diameter of steel bars in mm.
L = Length of bars in meter.

Example 1 : Calculate the weight of 60 meter long 12mm dia bar.

Here, D = 12mm.
L = 100m.
We know that, W = D²L / 162

W = 12² x 60/162 = 53 kg 

Weight of 60 m 12mm dia bar is 53 kg.

Let's look for another example.

Example 2 : Calculate the weight of 100 m 16mm dia bar.

Here, D = 16mm

L = 100m

W = 16² x 100/162 = 158 kg 

If we put 1meter length for each diameter of steel bar in the formula then we will get the unit weight.

• 10mm dia bar = 10² x 1/162 = 0.617 kg/m
• 12mm dia bar = 12² x 1/162 = 0.888 kg/m
• 16mm dia bar = 16² x 1/162 = 1.580 kg/m
• 20mm dia bar = 20² x 1/162 = 2.469 kg/m

If we multiply the length of bars with this unit weight we will get the total weight of steel bars.

For example, total weight of 1000 meter long 20mm dia steel bar is,

1000 x 2.469 = 2469 kg.

Using the same method we can calculate the unit weight of different steel bars.

Here I have calculated in meter but we can also calculate in foot. To calculate in foot we have to use the following formula:

W = D²L / 533

Where, 
D = Diameter of bars in mm.
L = Length of bars in foot.

TOP 10 REQUIREMNETS TO BE A SUCCESSFUL CIVIL ENGINEER

CIVIL ENGINEERING REQUIREMENTS:

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE TOP 10 REQUIREMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING TO BECOME A SUCCESSFUL CIVIL ENGINEER:

1.TESTS OF A  BUILDING MATERIALS:

A good civil engineer should have proper knowledge of different tests of building materials. Some important test are listed below.

Concrete Test:

• Slump test
• Compression test
• Split tensile test
• Soundness test etc.

Soil Test:

• Core cutter test
• Compaction test
• Sand replacement test
• Triaxial test
• Consolidation test etc.

Bitumen Test:

• Ductility test
• Softening point test
• Gravity test
• Penetration test etc.

2.INVESTIGATION OF SOIL:

Various soil tests are conducted to determine the settlement and stability of soils before starting a construction. So as a civil engineer, you should have enough knowledge of these tests which are performed at the site.

3.USAGE OF SURVEY INSTRUMENTS:

Usage of survey instruments like the total station, theodolite etc is also a mandatory knowledge for every civil engineer. These instruments are used for marking and measurements.

4.STANDARD CODES USAGE IN CONSTRUCTION:

Every country has their standard safety specifications (eg: IS code) for construction related works. All new construction should be done by following all the rules and procedure mentioned in the standard codes. Otherwise, chances of failure of a structure will be always high.

5.BAR BENDING SCHEDULE:

Bar bending schedule is an essential chart for civil engineers. It provides the reinforcement calculation of RC beam such as cutting length, type of bending, the length of bending etc.

6.DRAWINGS AND DESIGNS:

Drawings and designs are the primary keys of an ongoing project. It provides all the required specifications of that project. Every site engineers should have the analyzing power of such drawings and designs.

7.ESTIMATION AND BILLS:

Estimation and bills should be prepared by a civil engineer in a construction project. So one should also have a good knowledge in estimation and bills to become a successful civil engineer.

8.QUALITY CONTROL:
 
Quality control ensures the profit of a project by reducing the extra costs. So you must have a basic knowledge about quality control.

9.ON FIELD MANAGEMENT:

Knowledge of form-work, concreting, safety measures etc is also a key aspect of a successful civil engineer.

10.COORDINATION WITH LABOR:

As a civil engineer, you must know how to deal with labors in a site. Interacting with and also managing the labors in a site is much more important.

TYPES OF DRAWINGS USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

TYPES OF DRAWINGS USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION:

Drawings are the most important things we need to start any construction project. There are different types of drawings for different purposes. In this article, we will discuss different types of construction drawings (also known as Working Drawing). Construction drawings provide detail measurements and clear section of every building parts. After reviewing, the drawings are justified and modified and finally approved for construction.The different types of construction drawings are listed below.

1.ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING:

This type of drawing provides complete view of a building. It demonstrates the location of building parts where they will be placed. There are different types of architectural drawings with different names such as plan, elevation, section etc.

2.STRUCTURAL DRAWING:

As the name suggests, this type of drawing provides information about structure, like strength of different structural elements, structural materials, grade, size and placement of reinforcement etc. 

3.ELECTRICAL DRAWING:

This type of drawings provide the details and location of electrical wiring, fixtures,sub-station etc. The electrical load calculation is also given in the drawing. 

4.PLUMBING AND SANITARY DRAWING:

These drawings give the location of sanitary, piping for water supply system, fixture, and the process to connect every fixture etc.

5.FINISHING DRAWING:

 This types of drawings contain the details of finishing and appearance of the building such as marbles, tiles etc.

HOW TO CALCULATE CEMENT BAGS IN 1 CUBIC METER

PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE CEMENT BAGS IN 1 CUBIC METER:

Let us consider the nominal mix is 1:2:4

Loss of cement is considered as 2%

Output of mix is considered as 67%

To achieve 1cum output, we need 1/0.67 = 1.49 say 1.50 cum dry mix.
      
Now add wastage of 2%, i.e (1.50 + 0.02) = 1.52 cum.

Volume of cement = (Cement / Cement+Sand+Aggregate) x Total material 
                = (1 /1+2+4) x 1.52
                = 0.2171 cum

As we know, the density of cement is 1440 kg/cum and 

Weight of 1 bag cement = 50 kg.

Therefore Volume of 1 bag cement = (Weight of 1 bag cement / Density of cement)
                                                        = 50 / 1440 = 0.0347 cum.

∴ No. of cement bags required in 1 cubic meter = 0.2171 / 0.0347 = 6.25 bags.

Note: You can use the same formula for calculating cement for other nominal mixes.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ESTIMATES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ESTIMATES:

There are different types of estimates which are as follows:

1.PRELIMINARY OR APPROXIMATE OR ROUGH ESTIMATE:

This is an inexact estimate to find out a rough cost in a short time which enables the authority concerned to consider the financial aspect of the scheme, for according sanction to the same. Such an estimate is framed after knowing the rate of similar works and from practical knowledge in various ways for various types of works such as:

• Plinth area or square-meter method
• Cubic rate or cubic-meter method
• Service until or until rate method
• Bay method
• Approximate quantities with bill method
• Cost comparison method
• The cost of materials and labor.

2.DETAILED ESTIMATES:

This consists of detailed particulars of the quantities, rates, and costs of all the materials required for satisfactory completion of a  project.

Quantities of all materials of work are calculated according to their respective dimensions on the drawings on a measurement sheet. Multiplying these quantities by their respective rates in a separate sheet, the cost of  all items of work are figured out individually and then summarized, i.e abstracted (which is the detailed actual estimated cost of work). All other expenses required for satisfactory completion of the project are added to the above cost to frame  the total of a detailed estimate.

A detailed estimate is accompanied by

• Report
• Specifications
• Detailed drawings showing plans, different sections, Key or Index plan etc.
• Design data and calculations
• The basis of rates  adopted in the estimate.

Such a detailed estimate is prepared for technical sanction, administrative approval and also for the execution of a contract with the contractor.

3.QUANTITY ESTIMATES OR QUANTITY SURVEY:

This is a complete estimate or list of quantities for all materials of work required to complete the concerned project. The quantity of each individual item of work is worked out from respective dimensions on the drawing of the structure. To find the cost of an item its quantity is multiplied by the rate per unit for that item. The purpose of the bill of quantities is to provide a complete list of quantities necessary for the completion of any engineering project and when priced gives the estimated cost of the project.
 

TOP 10 BRANCHES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

TOP 10 CIVIL ENGINEERING BRANCHES:

The top 10 civil engineering branches are as following:

1.CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING:

 Construction engineering is one of the important branches of civil engineering.This branch deals with the planning, construction, and maintenance of structures such as buildings, bridges, towers etc.

2.GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING:

  
Geotechnical engineering is about analyzing the subterrestrial soil, rock, foundation etc.
Sub-branches of Geotechnical engineering:

• Soil Mechanics
• Soil Dynamics
• Foundation Engineering
• Rock Mechanics
• Pavement Engineering

3.STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING:

Structural engineering is the branch which deals with the design and structural analysis of structures such as buildings, bridges, etc.

4.SURVEYING:

In this branch of civil engineering, surveying and leveling are done to locate and measure the property lines, layout of buildings, roads, bridges, etc. for construction.

5.TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING:

Transportation engineering deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of various transportation facilities such as highways, railways, airports, parking lots, traffic signal control systems etc.

6.ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING:

This branch is related to study of pollution, environment-friendly designs, water treatment plants etc.

7.EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING:

Earthquake engineering is one of the latest additions in civil engineering. It deals with the seismic forces, designs and construction of earthquake resistant structures.

8.WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING:

This branch of civil engineering interacts with the design and construction of hydraulic structures such as dams, canals, water distribution systems etc.

9.MUNICIPAL ENGINEERING:

Municipal engineers work with the urban or city governments for planning and management of township.

10.MATERIAL ENGINEERING:

Material engineering is the study of the strength of materials, properties of materials etc which are used in construction work and other ceramics.